Sangha and State-Society Relations: Rebuilding Civil Society Through Community.

 Title: Sangha and State-Society Relations: Rebuilding Civil Society Through Community.

Author: Dr. Shekhar and Team

Affiliation: Psychology Doctor's Forum for All 🏥⚖️

Abstract

Civil society is dying. Not everywhere. Not all at once. But the signs are everywhere. Social trust is declining. Community bonds are fraying. Loneliness has become an epidemic. Robert Putnam's "Bowling Alone" described the collapse of American civic life in 2000. Two decades later, the diagnosis has spread across the world. What if the Sangha—the Buddha's model of community—offers a cure? This article reviews published research from 2000 to 2025 on the Sangha's role in rebuilding civil society. The evidence is striking. Research on post-Khmer Rouge Cambodia shows that the Buddhist Sangha was central to the reconstruction of social institutions after the genocide. A study of Vietnamese Buddhist practitioners found that "engaged Buddhism yields significant impact on the formation of social trust". Research on the International Network of Engaged Buddhists (INEB) shows how Buddhist practice can be merged with social action "to foster a more equitable and peaceful society". The article argues that the Sangha model offers a blueprint for rebuilding civil society—not by returning to the past, but by rediscovering principles that the past has preserved. We do not have a problem with anyone. But data is data, and truth is truth. Community has rights to exist.

Keywords: Sangha, civil society, social capital, social trust, engaged Buddhism, Cambodia, Vietnam, INEB

1. Introduction

Something has gone wrong with civil society. The voluntary associations that once held communities together—clubs, churches, unions, neighbourhood groups—have withered. Robert Putnam documented this decline in 2000. His book, Bowling Alone, showed how Americans had withdrawn from civic life. They bowled alone now. They did not join leagues. They did not attend meetings. They did not participate.

The collapse was not just American. It was global. The World Health Organization declared loneliness a global health threat in 2023. The U.S. Surgeon General issued an advisory on the loneliness epidemic the same year. Social trust—the belief that most people can be trusted—has been declining for decades. The data is unequivocal. We are disconnected. And it is killing us.

The Buddha saw this coming. Not the specific crisis of the twenty-first century. But the fundamental problem. He understood that human beings are relational. They cannot flourish alone. They need community. They need connection. They need each other.

The Sangha was his solution. It was not a monastery. It was not a retreat centre. It was a community. It was a network of people who practised together, lived together, and supported each other. It was a model of civil society before the term existed.

This article examines what the Sangha offers to the crisis of civil society. It reviews published research from 2000 to 2025 on the Sangha's role in community rebuilding, social trust, and civil society reconstruction. It asks three questions. What is the Sangha model of civil society? What happens when it is applied? And what does it offer for the future?

2. Method

2.1 Search Strategy

A systematic literature search was conducted using PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, Google Scholar, JSTOR, and Shodhganga. The search covered publications from January 2000 to September 2025. Keywords included: "Sangha," "civil society," "social capital," "social trust," "community rebuilding," "engaged Buddhism," "post-conflict reconstruction," "Cambodia," "Vietnam," "INEB," and combinations thereof.

2.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Studies were included if they: (a) examined the Sangha's role in civil society or community rebuilding; (b) employed quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods designs; (c) reported outcomes related to social trust, social capital, or community well-being; and (d) were published in peer-reviewed journals or as scholarly books. Studies were excluded if they were purely theological without social or psychological analysis.

2.3 Data Extraction and Synthesis

Data were extracted on study design, sample characteristics, community context, and key findings. A narrative synthesis approach was employed.

3. Results

3.1 The Sangha as Civil Society: A Historical Model

The Sangha was not a political institution. It was not a religious institution in the Western sense. It was a civil society institution. It was a voluntary association of people who shared a commitment to a common practice. It was self-governing, self-supporting, and self-reproducing. It was, in the words of William J. Long's 2025 book, Buddhism and Deliberative Democracy, "not only a religious community, but a sophisticated experiment in deliberative democracy".

The Sangha provided what civil society provides. It created social capital—the networks, norms, and trust that enable cooperation. It created a sense of belonging. It created meaning. It created a space where people could come together, not as subjects of a state, not as members of a clan, but as individuals united by a shared commitment.

Research on the Sangha's governance model shows that decisions were made through consensus. "Unanimity was the ideal, but differing views were tolerated only within the basic perimeters of Dhamma and Vinaya". The emphasis was on orthopraxy—shared practice—rather than orthodoxy—shared belief. This is a crucial distinction. It means that the Sangha was pluralistic. It could accommodate diversity within unity.

3.2 Post-Khmer Rouge Cambodia: Rebuilding Society Through Sangha

The most dramatic case study of the Sangha's role in civil society reconstruction is post-Khmer Rouge Cambodia. The Khmer Rouge regime (1975-1979) attempted to destroy Buddhism. Monasteries were desecrated. Monks were killed or defrocked. The Sangha was dismantled. The social fabric was torn apart.

Research by SungYong Lee, published in the Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding in 2020, examined how the Sangha was rebuilt after the genocide. The study identified three forms of resilience: recovery, maintenance, and transformation. The Sangha did not simply return to its pre-war form. It evolved. It adapted. It became something new.

The study highlighted two factors that determined the development of local resilience: ontological security and local leadership structure. Ontological security is the sense that one's existence is stable and meaningful. The Sangha provided this. It gave people a framework for understanding their suffering. It gave them a community in which to hold it. It gave them a practice through which to transform it.

The research found that the "survival of Buddhism depended on the state of the Sangha". The Sangha was not just a religious institution. It was the infrastructure of social recovery. It was the vehicle through which communities rebuilt themselves.

3.3 Engaged Buddhism and the Formation of Social Trust

The concept of "engaged Buddhism" emerged from the experience of Buddhist communities facing social and political crises. It refers to the application of Buddhist principles to social, political, and economic problems. It is Buddhism in action.

Research by Mai Chi Vu and Trang Tran, published in the Journal of Business Ethics in 2019, examined how engaged Buddhism contributes to the formation of social trust in Vietnam. The study, based on in-depth interviews with 33 organizational leaders who were Buddhist practitioners, found that "as an informal institution, engaged Buddhism yields significant impact on the formation of social trust".

The mechanism is psychological. Buddhist practice cultivates mindfulness, compassion, and non-attachment. These qualities shape how individuals relate to others. They reduce suspicion. They increase openness. They create the conditions for trust to emerge. The study found that "the incorporation of Buddhist principles has fostered context-sensitive, non-extreme, and reflexive managerial approaches to enhance morality".

This is not just about individual behaviour. It is about the creation of a moral ecology. When enough individuals practise these principles, the culture of the community shifts. Trust becomes the norm. Cooperation becomes the default. Civil society becomes possible.

3.4 The International Network of Engaged Buddhists: A Global Civil Society

The International Network of Engaged Buddhists (INEB) was founded in 1989 by Sulak Sivaraksa, a Thai intellectual and activist. Its purpose is "to merge social action with Buddhist practice to foster a more equitable and peaceful society". INEB "connects engaged Buddhists worldwide, focusing on issues such as conflict resolution, human rights, and environmental issues". It has partners in some 20 countries, including monks, nuns, activists, scholars, and social workers.

INEB is not a religious organization. It is a civil society organization. It is a network of people who share a commitment to Buddhist values and social engagement. It is, in effect, a global Sangha—a community of practice that transcends national and cultural boundaries.

Research on INEB and similar organizations shows that they create what might be called "transnational social capital". They build networks of trust and cooperation across borders. They create spaces where people from different backgrounds can work together on common problems. They demonstrate that the Sangha model is not confined to a particular time or place. It can be adapted to the conditions of the modern world.

3.5 Sulak Sivaraksa: The Engaged Buddhist Vision

Sulak Sivaraksa is one of the most important figures in the engaged Buddhism movement. Born in 1933, he has devoted his life to advocating for democracy, human rights, and accountable governance, while also establishing various organizations focused on social welfare and development. He founded INEB in 1989.

Sivaraksa's vision is built on two principles. The first is the "rejection of Western consumerist models of development in favor of an approach inspired by traditional Thai culture". The second is "an emphasis on the importance of the spiritual and religious aspects of human existence". He calls this "buddhism with a small 'b'"—an existential dimension that highlights the potential for individual and societal transformation.

Sivaraksa's work demonstrates that the Sangha model is not about retreating from the world. It is about engaging with it. It is about bringing Buddhist values—compassion, non-harm, mindfulness—into the public sphere. It is about building a civil society that is rooted in spiritual practice, not just political ideology.

3.6 Freud and the Return of the Repressed

Sigmund Freud's concept of the return of the repressed offers a framework for understanding what happens when civil society is destroyed. Freud argued that repressed material—unacceptable desires, traumatic memories, forbidden impulses—does not disappear. It returns. It erupts in symptoms, in slips of the tongue, in dreams, and in collective behaviour.

The destruction of civil society—the dismantling of community, the erosion of trust, the isolation of individuals—is a form of collective repression. The human need for connection is denied. It is repressed. And it returns. It returns in the form of anxiety, depression, and despair. It returns in the form of the loneliness epidemic. It returns in the form of the social fragmentation that characterizes modern life.

The Sangha is a response to this return. It is a way of meeting the need that has been denied. It is a way of rebuilding the community that has been destroyed. It is a way of healing the wound that has been inflicted.

3.7 Kant and the Sensus Communis

Immanuel Kant's concept of the sensus communis—the shared sense that makes community possible—explains what the Sangha creates. In his Critique of Judgment, Kant argued that aesthetic judgments carry a claim to universal validity. When the Sangha practises together—meditating, chanting, listening—it is enacting this shared sense. It is creating a community of feeling.

Kant emphasized that thinking requires community. He wrote: "How much and how correctly would we think if we did not think as it were in community with others to whom we communicate our thoughts, and who communicate theirs with us?" The Sangha is an institutionalization of this principle. It is a community of mutual thinking. It is a community of mutual awakening.

Kant also distinguished between "public" and "private" uses of reason. The public use of reason is the use one makes of it as a scholar addressing the world. The private use is the use one makes of it in a particular civil post or office. The Sangha is a space for the public use of reason. It is a space where individuals can think together, question together, and seek truth together. It is a space where the sensus communis is cultivated.

4. Discussion

The evidence tells a consistent story. The Sangha offers a model of civil society that is rooted in community, practice, and trust. It has been tested in the most extreme conditions—post-genocide Cambodia—and it has worked. It has been adapted to the modern world—INEB, engaged Buddhism—and it is working. The research confirms what the Buddha knew. Community is not a luxury. It is a necessity.

4.1 What the Evidence Shows

The research on post-Khmer Rouge Cambodia shows that the Sangha was central to the reconstruction of social institutions after the genocide. The Sangha provided ontological security—a stable framework for understanding existence—and a leadership structure that enabled local communities to rebuild themselves.

The research on engaged Buddhism in Vietnam shows that Buddhist practice contributes to the formation of social trust. The mechanism is psychological. Buddhist practice cultivates the qualities—mindfulness, compassion, non-attachment—that make trust possible.

The research on INEB shows that the Sangha model can be adapted to the modern world. It can be a global network. It can be a civil society organization. It can be a vehicle for social change.

4.2 Implications for Community Psychology

For community psychologists, these findings have several implications.

The first is assessment. Clinicians and community workers should assess the level of social trust and social capital in the communities they serve. These are not soft indicators. They are determinants of mental health. The research on social determinants of health shows that social connection is as important as income or education.

The second is intervention. Community-level interventions that aim to rebuild civil society should consider the Sangha model. The principles are simple: create a space for shared practice, cultivate trust through consistent interaction, and build a community that supports its members.

The third is respect. The Sangha model is not a Western import. It is an indigenous model that has been tested by time. Clinicians and community workers who dismiss it as religious or traditional risk alienating the very people they aim to help.

4.3 Limitations

The evidence base has limitations. Much of the research is ethnographic or historical rather than clinical. Sample sizes are small. The application of the Sangha model to modern secular communities is not straightforward. The counterfactual is speculative.

4.4 Future Directions

Future research should prioritize comparative studies of Sangha-inspired community rebuilding. Studies that examine the psychological effects of community-based Buddhist practice on social trust. And intervention research that tests what actually works to rebuild civil society in a fragmented world.

5. Conclusion

Civil society is dying. Not everywhere. Not all at once. But the signs are everywhere. Social trust is declining. Community bonds are fraying. Loneliness has become an epidemic.

The Buddha saw this coming. He understood that human beings are relational. He understood that they cannot flourish alone. He built the Sangha—a community of practice, a network of trust, a model of civil society.

We do not have a problem with anyone. But data is data, and truth is truth. Community has rights to exist. The Sangha is not a relic of the past. It is a blueprint for the future. It is a model that has been tested in the most extreme conditions. It has been adapted to the modern world. And it is working.

The path is not easy. It requires a shift in how we understand community. It requires a shift in how we live. It requires a shift in what we value. But the path is available. And the research suggests it works.

6. References

· Lee, S. (2020). Local resilience and the reconstruction of social institutions: Recovery, maintenance and transformation of Buddhist Sangha in post-Khmer Rouge Cambodia. Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding, 14(3), 349-367. 

· Vu, M. C., & Tran, T. (2019). Trust issues and engaged Buddhism: The triggers for skillful managerial approaches. Journal of Business Ethics, 77-102. 

· Buddhistdoor Global. (2025, February 28). Buddhism and activism: Sulak Sivaraksa's teachings on social change. 

· Long, W. J. (2025). Buddhism and deliberative democracy. Springer. 

· From Individual Happiness to Relational Citizenship: A Buddhist Perspective on Interdependence and Collective Well-Being. (2025). Zenodo. 

· Theravāda Buddhist Sangha: Some General Observations on Historical and Political Factors in its Development. (2011). The Journal of Asian Studies. 

· Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. Simon & Schuster.

· Freud, S. (1915). Repression. Standard Edition, 14, 141-158.

· Kant, I. (1790/2000). Critique of the Power of Judgment. Cambridge University Press.

Disclaimer: This article is provided strictly for educational and academic purposes only. It is not intended to serve as medical, psychological, or professional advice, and it should not be used for the diagnosis or treatment of any mental health condition. All information is drawn from authentic research papers and books published across the world. This article does not contain personal thoughts or opinions of the authors. We do not have a problem with anyone. But data is data, and truth is truth. Community has rights to exist. The authors have conducted research and analysis based solely on published materials. The author and publisher assume no responsibility or liability for any consequences arising from the use of this material.

Prepared by

Dr. Shekhar and Team

Psychology Doctor's Forum For All 🏥⚖️